Fixing cobalt metal onto mordenite through spray impregnation and its evaluation as a catalyst in transforming used coconut cooking oil into bio-jet fuel
Main Article Content
Abstract
Given the challenges posed by fossil-based jet fuel, research into bio-jet fuel production has intensified to achieve carbon neutrality. The present work reports a significant breakthrough with the successful conversion of used coconut cooking oil into bio-jet fuel utilizing a cobalt-impregnated mordenite catalyst. Cobalt was introduced to mordenite via the spray impregnation method at a concentration of 2% using a CoCl?·6H?O solution. The resultant catalyst was characterized using FTIR, XRD, NH?-TPD, SAA, FESEM-EDX Mapping, TEM, XPS, and TG/DTA instruments. Hydrotreatment was conducted in a semi-batch reactor at atmospheric pressure, employing H? gas at a flow rate of 20 mL/min and a catalyst-to-feed ratio of 1:200 (w/w) for a duration of 2 h. The addition of cobalt significantly enhanced the efficiency of the hydrotreatment by improving the catalytic performance of mordenite as a support material. The liquid product conversion and total bio-jet fuel yield obtained from the hydrotreatment of used coconut cooking oil using the Co/mordenite catalyst were 60.25% and 51.11%, respectively. The highest selectivity for bio-jet fuel was observed in fraction II (450–550 °C) at 88.90%. This catalyst exhibited sustained performance over three consecutive runs, indicating its potential application in the future biofuel industry. Altogether, this research reveals the possibility of employing used coconut cooking oil as a sustainable and promising feedstock to be converted into bio-jet fuel by hydrodeoxygenation and/or hydrocracking reactions.
Downloads
Article Details
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Copyright
Open Access authors retain the copyrights of their papers, and all open access articles are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided that the original work is properly cited.
The use of general descriptive names, trade names, trademarks, and so forth in this publication, even if not specifically identified, does not imply that these names are not protected by the relevant laws and regulations.
While the advice and information in this journal are believed to be true and accurate on the date of its going to press, neither the authors, the editors, nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
2. S. Bhattacharjee, C.S. Tan, Production of Biojet Fuel from Octadecane and Derivatives of Castor Oil Using a Bifunctional Catalyst Ni-Pd@Al-MCF in a Pressurized CO2-Hexane-Water Solvent, Energy & Fuels 36 (2022) 3119–3133.
3. J. Zhang, H. Fang, H. Wang, M. Jia, J. Wu, S. Fang, Energy efficiency of airlines and its influencing factors: a comparison between China and the United States, Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 125 (2017) 1–8.
4. S.S. Doliente, A. Narayan, J.F.D. Tapia, N.J. Samsatli, Y. Zhao, S. Samsatli, Bio-aviation fuel: a comprehensive review and analysis of the supply chain components, Front. Energy Res. 8 (2020) 1–38.
5. A. Zitouni, R. Bachir, W. Bendedouche, S. Bedrane, Production of bio-jet fuel range hydrocarbons from catalytic HDO of biobased difurfurilydene acetone over Ni/SiO2-ZrO2 catalysts, Fuel 297 (2021) 120783.
6. X. Zhao, L. Wei, J. Julson, Q. Qiao, A. Dubey, G. Anderson, Catalytic cracking of non-edible sunflower oil over ZSM-5 for hydrocarbon bio-jet fuel, New Biotech. 32 (2015) 300–312.
7. C.A. Scaldaferri, W.M.D. Pasa, Production of jet fuel and green diesel range biohydrocarbons by hydroprocessing of soybean oil over niobium phosphate catalyst, Fuel 245 (2019) 458–466.
8. I.H. Choi, J.S. Lee, C.U. Kim, T.W. Kim, K.Y. Lee, K.R. Hwang, Production of bio-jet fuel range alkanes from catalytic deoxygenation of Jatropha fatty acids on a WOx/Pt/TiO2 catalyst, Fuel 215 (2018) 675–685.
9. W. Trisunaryanti, K. Wijaya, I. Kartini, S. Purwono, Rodiansono, A. Mara, A.S. Rahma, Hydrodeoxygenation of refined palm kernel oil (RPKO) into bio-jet fuel using Mo/H-ZSM-5 catalysts, React. Kinet. Mech. Catal. 137 (2024) 843–878.
10. F. Visiamah, W. Trisunaryanti, Triyono, Microwave-assisted coconut wood carbon-based catalyst impregnated by Ni and/or Pt for bio-jet fuel range hydrocarbons production from Calophyllum inophyllum L. oil using modified-microwave reactor, Case Stud. Chem. Environ. Eng. 9 (2024) 1–12.
11. A.J. Saviola, K. Wijaya, A. Syoufian, W.D. Saputri, D.A. Saputra, I.T.A. Aziz, W.-C. Oh, Hydroconversion of used palm cooking oil into bio-jet fuel over phosphoric acid-modified nano-zirconia catalyst, Case Studies in Environ. Eng. 9 (2024) 100653.
12. E.P. Sari, K. Wijaya, W. Trisunaryanti, A. Syoufian, H. Hasanudin, W.D. Saputri, The effective combination of zirconia superacid and zirconia-impregnated CaO in biodiesel manufacturing: Utilization of used coconut cooking oil (UCCO), Int. J. Energy Environ. Eng. 13 (2022) 967–978.
13. Sriatun, A. Darmawan, H. Susanto, Widayat, The NiO and MoO3 Enriched ZSM-5 as Catalyst for the Hydrocracking of Coconut Oil into Bio-jet Fraction, Rasayan J. Chem. 15 (2022) 437–447.
14. S. Huang, X. Liu, L. Yu, S. Miao, Z. Liu, S. Zhang, S. Xie, L. Xu, Preparation of hierarchical mordenite zeolites by sequential steaming-acid leaching-alkaline treatment, Microporous Mesoporous Mater. 191 (2014) 18–26.
15. W. Trisunaryanti, Triyono, K. Wijaya, I. Kartini, S. Purwono, Rodiansono, A. Mara, A. Budiansyah, Preparation of Mo-impregnated mordenite catalysts for the conversion of refined kernel palm oil into bioavtur, Commun. Sci. Technol. 8 (2023) 226–234.
16. N. Gayathri, P. Tamizhdurai, C. Kavitha, V.L. Mangesh, P.S. Krishnan, A. Vijayaraj, R. Kumaran, N.S. Kumar, A.S. Al-Fatesh, S.B. Alreshaidan, Fe-Ni bimetallic supported on mordenite catalyst for selective oxidation of veratryl alcohol in a continuous reactor, Arabian J. Chem. 17 (2024) 105506.
17. A.N. Pulungan, R. Goei, F. Harahap, L. Simatupang, C. Suriani, S. Gea, M.I. Hasibuan, J.L. Sihombing, A.I.Y. Tok,. Pyrolysis of Palm Fronds Waste into Bio-Oil and Upgrading Process Via Esterification-Hydrodeoxygenation Using Cu–Zn Metal Oxide Catalyst Loaded on Mordenite Zeolite, Waste Biomass Valor. 15 (2024) 187–206.
18. W. Trisunaryanti, K. Wijaya, A.M. Tazkia, Preparation of Ni/ZSM-5 and Mo/ZSM-5 catalysts for hydrotreating palm oil into biojet fuel, Commun. Sci. Technol. 9 (2024) 161–169.
19. A. Yulianto, W. Trisunaryanti, T. Triyono, A.J. Saviola, K. Wijaya, I. Kartini, S. Purwono, R. Rodiansono, A. Mara, Effect of arrangements in an atmospheric hydrotreating reactor of cobalt and/or molybdenum dispersed on activated carbon catalysts toward bio-jet fuel production from refined palm oil, Case Studies in Environ. Eng. 10 (2024) 100894.
20. Triyono, W. Trisunaryanti, J. Purbonegoro, S.I. Aksanti, Effect of cobalt impregnation methods on Parangtritis sand towards catalysts activity in hydrocracking of degummed low-quality Ujung Kulon Malapari oil into biohydrocarbons, React. Kinet. Mech. Catal. 137 (2024) 303–321.
21. Y. Gao, W. Sun, W. Yang, Q. Li, Creation of Pd/Al2O3 catalyst by a spray process for fixed bed reactors and its effective removal of aqueous bromate, Sci. Rep. 7 (2017) 1–11.
22. M.T. Hapsari, W. Trisunaryanti, I.I. Falah, M.L. Permata, Coating of Pd and Co on Mordenite for a Catalyst of Hydrotreating of Cashew Nut Shell Liquid into Biofuel, Indones. J. Chem. 20 (2020) 1092–1100.
23. S.K. Saxena, N. Viswanadham, A.H. Al-Muhtaseb, Enhanced selective oxidation of benzyl alcohol to benzaldehyde on mesopore created mordenite catalyst, J Porous Mater. 23 (2016) 1671–1678.
24. W. Wangsa, A.J. Saviola, K. Wijaya, A. Bhagaskara, L. Hauli, D.A. Saputra DA, Utilization of laboratory glove waste for fuel production through pyrolysis hydrocracking consecutive process catalyzed by sulfated Indonesian natural zeolite, React. Kinet. Mech. Catal. 137 (2024) 1495–1514.
25. K. Sharifi, R. Halladj, S.J. Royaee, An overview on the effects of metal promoters and acidity of ZSM-5 in performance of the aromatization of liquid hydrocarbons, Rev. Adv. Mater. Sci. 59 (2020) 188–206.
26. M. Thommes K. Kaneko A.V. Neimark, J.P. Olivier, F. Rodriguez-reinoso, J. Rouquerol, K.S.W. Sing, Physisorption of gases, with special reference to the evaluation of surface area and pore size distribution (IUPAC Technical Report), Pure Appl. Chem. 87 (2015) 1051–1069.
27. L. Xu, J. Zhang, J. Ding, T. Liu, G. Shi, X. Li, W. Dang, Y. Cheng, R. Guo, Pore Structure and Fractal Characteristics of Different Shale Lithofacies in the Dalong Formation in the Western Area of the Lower Yangtze Platform, Minerals 10 (2020) 72.
28. M.A. Ehsan, A.S. Hakeem, A. Rehman, Hierarchical Growth of CoO Nanoflower Thin Films Influencing the Electrocatalytic Oxygen Evolution Reaction, Electrocatalysis 11 (2020) 282–291.
29. S. Kalasina, K. Kongsawatvoragul, N. Phattharasupakun, P. Phattaraphuti M. Sawangphruk, Cobalt oxysulphide/hydroxide nanosheets with dual properties based on electrochromism and a charge storage mechanism, RSC Adv. 24 (2020) 14154.
30. M.A. Ardini, Triyono, T. Hara, N. Ichikuni, W. Trisunaryanti, Study of metal sequenced spray impregnation method towards Co-Mo/?-Al2O3 catalytic performance in hydrotreating of used coconut oil to liquid biohydrocarbon, Microporous Mesoporous Mater. 382 (2025) 113357.
31. A.J. Saviola, K. Wijaya, W.D. Saputri, L. Hauli, A.K. Amin, H. Ismail, B. Budhijanto, W.-C. Oh, W. Wangsa, P. Prastyo, Microwave-assisted green synthesis of nitrobenzene using sulfated natural zeolite as a potential solid acid catalyst, Appl. Nanosci. 13 (2023) 6575–6589.
32. M. Utami, W. Trisunaryanti, K. Shida, M. Tsushida, H. Kawakita, K. Ohto, K. Wijaya, M. Tominaga, Hydrothermal preparation of a platinum-loaded sulphated nanozirconia catalyst for the effective conversion of waste low density polyethylene into gasoline-range hydrocarbons, RSC Adv. 9 (2019) 41392–41401.
33. A. Çakan, B. Kiren, N. Ayas, Hydrodeoxygenation of safflower oil over cobalt-doped metal oxide catalysts for bio-aviation fuel production, Mol. Catal. 546 (2023) 113219.
34. B.H.H. Goh, C.T. Chong, H.C. Ong, T. Seljak, T. Katrašnik, V. Józsa, J.-H. Ng, B. Tian, S. Karmarkar, V. Ashokkumar, Recent advancements in catalytic conversion pathways for synthetic jet fuel produced from bioresources, Energy Conv. Manag. 251 (2022) 114974.
35. W. Trisunaryanti, S. Larasati, S. Bahri, Y.L. Ni’mah, L. Efiyanti, K. Amri, R. Nuryanto, S.D. Sumbogo, Performance comparison of Ni-Fe loaded on NH2-functionalized mesoporous silica and beach sand in the hydrotreatment of waste palm cooking oil, J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 8 (2022) 104477.
36. M.S.L. Ore, K. Wijaya, W. Trisunaryanti, W.D. Saputri, E. Heraldy, N.W. Yuwana, P.L. Hariani, A. Budiman, S. Sudiono, The synthesis of SO4/ZrO2 and Zr/CaO catalysts via hydrothermal treatment and their application for conversion of low-grade coconut oil into biodiesel, J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 8 (2020) 104205.
37. Amit, S. Kumari, R. Jamwal, Use of FTIR spectroscopy integrated with multivariate chemometrics as a swift, and non-destructive technique to detect various adulterants in virgin coconut oil: a comprehensive review, Food Chem. Adv. 2 (2023) 100203.