Melanoidin degradation and electric energy production from palm oil waste using immobilized laccase-producing bacteria
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Abstract
Melanoidin is a high molecular weight pigment that is problematic in agricultural wastewaters like palm oil mill effluent (POME). This study presents a novel approach combining a laccase-producing bacterial consortium primarily Lactiplantibacillus plantarum, immobilized on hydrothermally modified granular activated carbon (GAC) for efficient melanoidin degradation and simultaneous electricity generation in a microbial fuel cell (MFC). The hydrothermal modification of GAC enhanced bacterial immobilization and electron transfer, contributing to improved biodegradation performance. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis identified a number of key degradation metabolites including silanediol, dimethyl; (1-methylethyl)benzene; limonene; and butylated hydroxytoluene, confirming an effective melanoidin breakdown. The system achieved 81.36 ± 1.07% melanoidin removal with electrochemical characterization that showed a maximum current density of 61.50 ± 1.98 mA/m² and power density of 1.51 ± 0.10 mW/m². These findings demonstrated the synergistic effect of hydrothermally modified GAC and the selected bacterial consortium offering a sustainable and innovative strategy for treating melanoidin-rich wastewater while recovering bioenergy.
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Palasai, W., Rothjanawan, K., Kongthong, A., Yodrach, R., Thipraksa, J., & Chaijak, P. (2025). Melanoidin degradation and electric energy production from palm oil waste using immobilized laccase-producing bacteria. Communications in Science and Technology, 10(1), 218-225. https://doi.org/10.21924/cst.10.1.2025.1700
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References
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J. Thipraksa, P. Chaijak, P. Michu and M. Lertworapreecha, Biodegradation and bioelectricity generation of melanoidin in palm oil mill effluent (POME) by laccase-producing bacterial consortium integrated with microbial fuel cell, Biocatal. Agric. Biotechnol. 43 (2022) 102444.
T. T. Bezuneh, The role of microorganisms in distillery wastewater treatment: A review, J. Bioremediat. Biodegrad. 7 (2016) 375.
M. M. Arimi, Y. Zhang, G. Gotz and S. U. GeiBen, Treatment of melanoidin wastewater by anaerobic digestion and coagulation, Environ. Technol. 36 (2015) 2410-2418.
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M. Akhtar, M. Hussain, F. Naeem, P. Akhter, F. Jamil, O. A. Qamar, A. A. Bazmi, N. Tariq, A. Asrar and Y. K. Park, Green and sustainable synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles for synergetic removal of melanoidin from ethanol distillery simulated model wastewater, J. Indust. Eng. Chem. 132 (2024) 291-303.
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R. Verma, L. M. Kundu and L. M. Pandey, Enhanced melanoidin removal by amine-modified Phyllathus emblica leaf powder, Bioresour. Technol. 339 (2021) 125572.
T. Kornillowicz-Kowalska and K. Rybczynska-Tkaczyk, Decolorization and biodegradation of melanoidin contaminated in beet molasses by an anamorphic strain of Bjerkandera adusta CCBAS930 and its mutants, World J. Microbial. Biotechnol. 37 (2020) 1.
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H. N. Abubackar, I. Biryol and A. Ayol, Yeast industry wastewater treatment with microbial fuel cells: Effect of electrode materials and reactor configurations, Int. J. Hydrogen Ener. 48 (2023) 12424-12432.
C. Saran, D. Purchase, G. D. Saratale, R. G. Saratale, L. F. R. Ferreira, M. Bilal, H. M. N. Iqbal, C. M. Hussain, S. I. Mulla and R. N. Bharagava, Microbial fuel cell: A green eco-frienly agent for tannery wastewater treatment and simultaneous bioelectricity/power generation, Chemosphere. 312 (2023) 137072.
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P. Chaijak, A. Kongthong, Decolorization and bioelectricity generation from palm oil mill effluent by a photosynthetic bacterial consortium, Caraka Tani: J. Sustain. Agric. 40 (2025) 52-63.
I. Ibrahim, T. Tsubota, M. A. Hassan, Y. Andou, Surface functionalization of biochar from oil palm empty fruit bunch through hydrothermal process, Process. 9 (2021) 149.
M. Kleerebezem, E. E. Vaughan, Probiotic and gut Lactobacilli and Bifidobacteria: Molecular approaches to study diversity and activity, Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 63 (2009) 269-290.
J. Zhao, H. He, C. Huang, Clostridium species as potential probiotics: Safety and functional aspects. Front. Microbiol. 10 (2019) 1695.
K. De Bruyne, N. Camu, L. De Vuyst, J. Swings, Identification and characteristics of lactic acid bacteria isolated from the fermentation of cocoa beans in Cameroon, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 76 (2010) 1797-1803.
H. Tse, J. L. L. Teng, H. Jia, E. W. C. Chan, S. Y. Leung, P. C. Y. Woo, Genomic insights into Paraclostridium bifermentans, an emerging human pathogen, Front. Microbiol. 8 (2017) 1740.
S. Callejon, R. Sendra, S. Ferrer, I. Pardo, Cloning and characterization of a new laccase from Lactobacillus plantarum j16 CECT 8944 catalyzing biogenic amines degradation. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 100 (2016) 3113-3124.
S. Yadav, R. Chandra, Biodegradation of organic compounds of molasses melanoidin (MM) from bioethanated distillery spent wash (BMDS) during the decolourisation by a potential bacterial consortium. Biodegradation. 23 (2012) 609-620.
S. K. Shin, J. E. Hyeon, Y. C. Joo, D. W. Jeong, S. K. You, S. O. Han, Effective malanoidin degradation by a synergistic laccase-peroxidase enzyme complex for skin whitening and other practical application. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 129 (2019) 181-186.
N. M. Naik, K. S. Jagadeesh, A. R. Alagawadi, Microbial decolorization of spentwash: a review. Indian J. Microbiol. 48 (2008) 41-48.
Z. Jiang, X. Li, M. Li, Q. Zhu, G. Li, C. Ma, Q. Li, J. Meng, Y. Liu, Q. Li, Impacts of red mud on lignin depolymerazation and humic substance formation mediated by laccase-producing bacterial community during composting, J. Hazard. Mater. 410 (2021) 124557.
S. Chaudhary, A. Varma, M. Mandal, R. Prasad, S. Porwal, Isolation and characterization of a novel laccase-producing bacteria Bhargavaea beijingensis from paper and pulp effluent-treated soil using in silico approaches, Curr. Microbiol. 80 (2023) 241.
K. Selvam, C. Sudhakar, A. R. Prasath, Optimization of laccase production from Bacillus subtilis strain KSK02 utilizing bi-substrates and their reactive red-120 dye degradation potential, Biomass Conv. Bioref. 1 (2024) 1.
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S. Yang, S. Arslan-Tontul, V. Fogliano, M. Casertano, W. Fan, Y. Xu, Y. Nie, A. Vilas-Franquesa, Upcycling of melanoidin-rich Chinese distilled spent grain through solid-state fermentation by Aspergillus awamori, Bioresour. Technol. 416 (2025) 131817.
S. S. A. Rahman, S. Pasupathi, N. R. Prakasan, J. Jaganathan, M. Mathivanan, S. Karuppiah, Adsorptive performance of acid-treated chitin from shrimp waste for the removal of methyl organe and melanodindins from aqueous solutions, Biomass Conv. Bioref. 1 (2024) 1.
A. Khandelwal, J. Swaminathan, A. Mangal, C. Ghoroi, P. N. L. Lens, Comparison efficacy of anodic and cathodic chambers in low-cost algae-assisted microbial fuel cell for textile wastewater remediation, Process Saf. Environ. Prot. 187 (2024) 1259-1268.
P. Chaijak, T. Rakkan, N. Paichid, J. Thipraksa, P. Michu, K. Sangkharak, Exploring potential aspect of microbial fuel cell (MFC) for simultaneous energy, polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) production and textile wastewater (TW) treatment, J. Polym. Environ. 32 (2024) 3104-3118.
X. Xie, J. Hu, X. Cao, S. Zhang, T. Sakamaki, X. Li, In situ utilization of electron-enhanced degradation of Azo dyes in a constructed wetland-microbial fuel cell coupling system, Sustainability. 16 (2024) 3181.
E. D. Piskin, N. Genc, Multi response optimization of waste activated sludge oxidation and azo dye reduction in microbial fuel cell, Environ. Technol. 45 (2024) 2599-2611.
T. P. Teoh, S. A. Ong, L. N. Ho, Y. S. Wong, N. A. Lutpi, Y. L. Oon, S. M. Tan, Y. P. Ong, K. L. Yap, Insights into the decolorization of mono and diazo dyes in single and binary dyes containing wastewater and electricity generation in up-flow constructed wetland coupled microbial fuel cell, Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. (2024) 17546-17563.
N. A. M. Nor, F. Tanaka, N. Yoshida, J. Jaafar, M. Z. Zailani, S. N. A. Ahmad, Preliminary evaluation of electricity recovery from palm oil mill effluent by anion exchange microbial fuel cell, Bioelectrochem. 160 (2024) 108770.
I. A. W. Tan, J. R. Selvanathan, M. O. Abdullah, N. Abdul Wahab, D. Kanakaraju, Effect of different mediators on bio-energy generation and palm oil mill effluent treatment in an air-cathode microbial fuel cell-adsorption system, DDF. 411 (2021) 67-78.
A. A. Latif, S. Ismail and S. Bhatia, Water recycling from palm oil mill effluent (POME) using membrane technology, Desalination. 157 (2003) 87-95.
R. R. Mohammed and M. F. Chong, Treatment and decolorization of biologically treated palm oil mill effluent (POME) using banana peel as novel biosorbent, J. Environ. Manag. 132 (2014) 237-249.
J. Thipraksa, P. Chaijak, P. Michu and M. Lertworapreecha, Biodegradation and bioelectricity generation of melanoidin in palm oil mill effluent (POME) by laccase-producing bacterial consortium integrated with microbial fuel cell, Biocatal. Agric. Biotechnol. 43 (2022) 102444.
T. T. Bezuneh, The role of microorganisms in distillery wastewater treatment: A review, J. Bioremediat. Biodegrad. 7 (2016) 375.
M. M. Arimi, Y. Zhang, G. Gotz and S. U. GeiBen, Treatment of melanoidin wastewater by anaerobic digestion and coagulation, Environ. Technol. 36 (2015) 2410-2418.
N. Akhlaghi, G. Najafpour-Darzi and A. Vaziri, Removal of melanoidin from baker yeast plant wastewater: A comparative study on chemical and biological processes, J. Water Proc. Eng. 61 (2024) 105301.
M. Akhtar, M. Hussain, F. Naeem, P. Akhter, F. Jamil, O. A. Qamar, A. A. Bazmi, N. Tariq, A. Asrar and Y. K. Park, Green and sustainable synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles for synergetic removal of melanoidin from ethanol distillery simulated model wastewater, J. Indust. Eng. Chem. 132 (2024) 291-303.
I. R. Garduno, M. Smith, E. Baramova, C. Kinsley, Hydrogen production in dark fermentation of brewery sludge pre-treated with white-rot fungi in submerged culture, Bioresour. Technol. Rep. 25 (2024) 101773.
S. Rizvi, A. Singh, A. Kushwaha and S. K. Gupta, Recent advances in melanoidin removal from wastewater: Sources, properties, toxicity, and remediation strategies, Emerg. Trend. Approach. Zero Waste. 1 (2022) 361-386.
R. Verma, L. M. Kundu and L. M. Pandey, Enhanced melanoidin removal by amine-modified Phyllathus emblica leaf powder, Bioresour. Technol. 339 (2021) 125572.
T. Kornillowicz-Kowalska and K. Rybczynska-Tkaczyk, Decolorization and biodegradation of melanoidin contaminated in beet molasses by an anamorphic strain of Bjerkandera adusta CCBAS930 and its mutants, World J. Microbial. Biotechnol. 37 (2020) 1.
G. Singh, S. Bakshi, K. K. Bandyopadhyay, S. Bose, R. Nayak and D. Paul, Enhanced biodegradation of melanoidin pigment from spentwash using PDMS-immobilized microbes via ‘repeated addition’ strategy, Biocatal. Agric. Biotechnol. 33 (2021) 101990.
N. K. Kheti, S. Rath and H. Thatoi, Screening and optimization of manganese peroxidase (MnP) production by Pseudoduganella violacea (SMB4), a bacterial isolate from Similipal biosphere reserve, Odisha and evaluation of Maillard reaction products degradation, Sustain. Chem. Environ. 24 (2023) 100009.
Y. Cardenes-Moreno, J. Gonzalez-Bacerio, H. G. Arellano and A. D. Monte-Martinez, Oxidoreductase enzymes: Characteristics, applications, and challenges as a biocatalyst, Biotechnol. Appl. Biochem. 70 (2023) 2108-2135.
B. Bertrand, F. Martinez-Morales and M. R. Trejo-Hernandez, Upgrading laccase production and biochemical properties: strategies and challenges, Biotecnol. Prog. 33 (2017) 1015-1034.
D. Zhongyang, P. Lin, C. Youzhi, Z. Liang, G. S. Zhenghuagu and Z. Kechang, Production and characterization of thermostable laccase from the mushroom, Ganoderma lucidum, using submerged fermentation, Afr. J. Microbiol. Res. 6 (2012) 1147-1157.
N. Ilic, S. Davidovic, M. Milic, J. Ladarevic, A. Onjia, S. Dimitrijevic-Brankovic and K. Mihajlovski, Green biocatalyst for decolorization of azo dyes from industrial wastewater: Coriolopsis trogii 2SMKN laccase immobilized on recycled brewer’s spent grain, Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 31 (2024) 32072-32090.
M. Hassan, S. Kanwal, R. S. Singh, M. A. Sa, M. Anwar and C. Zhao, Current challenges and future perspectives associated with configuration of microbial fuel cell for simultaneous energy generation and wastewater treatment, Int. J. Hydrogen Ener. 50 (2024) 323-350.
B. S. Thapa, S. Pandit, S. B. Patwardhan, S. Tripathi, A. S. Mathuriya, P. K. Gupta, R. B. Lal and T. R. Tusher, Application of microbial fuel cell (MFC) for pharmaceutical wastewater treatment: An overview and future perspectives, Sustain. 14 (2022) 8379.
R. Selvasembian, J. Mal, R. Rani, R. Sinha, R. Agrahari, I. Joshua, A. Santhiagu and N. Pradhan, Recent progress in microbial fuel cells for industrial effluent treatment and energy generation: Fundamentals to scale-up application and challenges, Bioresour. Technol. 346 (2022) 126462.
H. N. Abubackar, I. Biryol and A. Ayol, Yeast industry wastewater treatment with microbial fuel cells: Effect of electrode materials and reactor configurations, Int. J. Hydrogen Ener. 48 (2023) 12424-12432.
C. Saran, D. Purchase, G. D. Saratale, R. G. Saratale, L. F. R. Ferreira, M. Bilal, H. M. N. Iqbal, C. M. Hussain, S. I. Mulla and R. N. Bharagava, Microbial fuel cell: A green eco-frienly agent for tannery wastewater treatment and simultaneous bioelectricity/power generation, Chemosphere. 312 (2023) 137072.
Y. Mittal, S. Dash, P. Srivastava, P. M. Mishra, T. M. Aminabhavi and A. K. Yadav, Azo dye containing wastewater treatment in earthen membrane based unplanted two chambered constructed wetland-microbial fuel cells: A new design for enhanced performance, Chem. Eng. J. 427 (2022) 131856.
M. S. Onyango, V. O. Ojijo, A. Ochieng, J. O. Kittinya and F. O. Otieno, Simultaneous adsorption and biodegradation of synthetic melanoidin, Afr. J. Biotecnol. 11 (2012) 6083-6090.
P. Chaijak, A. Kongthong, N. Changkit, Utilization melanoidin consuming microalgae for electricity generation and wastewater treatment via photosynthetic microbial fuel cell, Acta Sci. Pol. Form. Cir. 23 (2024) 75-85.
P. Chaijak, A. Kongthong, Decolorization and bioelectricity generation from palm oil mill effluent by a photosynthetic bacterial consortium, Caraka Tani: J. Sustain. Agric. 40 (2025) 52-63.
I. Ibrahim, T. Tsubota, M. A. Hassan, Y. Andou, Surface functionalization of biochar from oil palm empty fruit bunch through hydrothermal process, Process. 9 (2021) 149.
M. Kleerebezem, E. E. Vaughan, Probiotic and gut Lactobacilli and Bifidobacteria: Molecular approaches to study diversity and activity, Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 63 (2009) 269-290.
J. Zhao, H. He, C. Huang, Clostridium species as potential probiotics: Safety and functional aspects. Front. Microbiol. 10 (2019) 1695.
K. De Bruyne, N. Camu, L. De Vuyst, J. Swings, Identification and characteristics of lactic acid bacteria isolated from the fermentation of cocoa beans in Cameroon, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 76 (2010) 1797-1803.
H. Tse, J. L. L. Teng, H. Jia, E. W. C. Chan, S. Y. Leung, P. C. Y. Woo, Genomic insights into Paraclostridium bifermentans, an emerging human pathogen, Front. Microbiol. 8 (2017) 1740.
S. Callejon, R. Sendra, S. Ferrer, I. Pardo, Cloning and characterization of a new laccase from Lactobacillus plantarum j16 CECT 8944 catalyzing biogenic amines degradation. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 100 (2016) 3113-3124.
S. Yadav, R. Chandra, Biodegradation of organic compounds of molasses melanoidin (MM) from bioethanated distillery spent wash (BMDS) during the decolourisation by a potential bacterial consortium. Biodegradation. 23 (2012) 609-620.
S. K. Shin, J. E. Hyeon, Y. C. Joo, D. W. Jeong, S. K. You, S. O. Han, Effective malanoidin degradation by a synergistic laccase-peroxidase enzyme complex for skin whitening and other practical application. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 129 (2019) 181-186.
N. M. Naik, K. S. Jagadeesh, A. R. Alagawadi, Microbial decolorization of spentwash: a review. Indian J. Microbiol. 48 (2008) 41-48.
Z. Jiang, X. Li, M. Li, Q. Zhu, G. Li, C. Ma, Q. Li, J. Meng, Y. Liu, Q. Li, Impacts of red mud on lignin depolymerazation and humic substance formation mediated by laccase-producing bacterial community during composting, J. Hazard. Mater. 410 (2021) 124557.
S. Chaudhary, A. Varma, M. Mandal, R. Prasad, S. Porwal, Isolation and characterization of a novel laccase-producing bacteria Bhargavaea beijingensis from paper and pulp effluent-treated soil using in silico approaches, Curr. Microbiol. 80 (2023) 241.
K. Selvam, C. Sudhakar, A. R. Prasath, Optimization of laccase production from Bacillus subtilis strain KSK02 utilizing bi-substrates and their reactive red-120 dye degradation potential, Biomass Conv. Bioref. 1 (2024) 1.
J. R. Aguirre-Sanchez, B. Quinones, J. A. Ortiz-Munoz, R. Prieto-Alvarado, I. F. Vega-Lopez, J. Martinez-Urtaza, B. G. Lee, C. Chaidez, Comparative genomic analyses of virulence and antimicrobial resistance in Citrobacter werkmanii, an emerging opportunistic pathogen, Microorganisms. 11 (2023) 2114.
S. Yang, S. Arslan-Tontul, V. Fogliano, M. Casertano, W. Fan, Y. Xu, Y. Nie, A. Vilas-Franquesa, Upcycling of melanoidin-rich Chinese distilled spent grain through solid-state fermentation by Aspergillus awamori, Bioresour. Technol. 416 (2025) 131817.
S. S. A. Rahman, S. Pasupathi, N. R. Prakasan, J. Jaganathan, M. Mathivanan, S. Karuppiah, Adsorptive performance of acid-treated chitin from shrimp waste for the removal of methyl organe and melanodindins from aqueous solutions, Biomass Conv. Bioref. 1 (2024) 1.
A. Khandelwal, J. Swaminathan, A. Mangal, C. Ghoroi, P. N. L. Lens, Comparison efficacy of anodic and cathodic chambers in low-cost algae-assisted microbial fuel cell for textile wastewater remediation, Process Saf. Environ. Prot. 187 (2024) 1259-1268.
P. Chaijak, T. Rakkan, N. Paichid, J. Thipraksa, P. Michu, K. Sangkharak, Exploring potential aspect of microbial fuel cell (MFC) for simultaneous energy, polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) production and textile wastewater (TW) treatment, J. Polym. Environ. 32 (2024) 3104-3118.
X. Xie, J. Hu, X. Cao, S. Zhang, T. Sakamaki, X. Li, In situ utilization of electron-enhanced degradation of Azo dyes in a constructed wetland-microbial fuel cell coupling system, Sustainability. 16 (2024) 3181.
E. D. Piskin, N. Genc, Multi response optimization of waste activated sludge oxidation and azo dye reduction in microbial fuel cell, Environ. Technol. 45 (2024) 2599-2611.
T. P. Teoh, S. A. Ong, L. N. Ho, Y. S. Wong, N. A. Lutpi, Y. L. Oon, S. M. Tan, Y. P. Ong, K. L. Yap, Insights into the decolorization of mono and diazo dyes in single and binary dyes containing wastewater and electricity generation in up-flow constructed wetland coupled microbial fuel cell, Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. (2024) 17546-17563.
N. A. M. Nor, F. Tanaka, N. Yoshida, J. Jaafar, M. Z. Zailani, S. N. A. Ahmad, Preliminary evaluation of electricity recovery from palm oil mill effluent by anion exchange microbial fuel cell, Bioelectrochem. 160 (2024) 108770.
I. A. W. Tan, J. R. Selvanathan, M. O. Abdullah, N. Abdul Wahab, D. Kanakaraju, Effect of different mediators on bio-energy generation and palm oil mill effluent treatment in an air-cathode microbial fuel cell-adsorption system, DDF. 411 (2021) 67-78.