Surface Chemistry and Adsorption Behavior of Methylene Blue on Functionalized Carbon Materials: A Comprehensive Study
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Keywords:
adsorption, carbon, methylene blue, parameters, regeneration
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Abstract
The increasing release of synthetic dyes, particularly methylene blue (MB), from textile effluents has become a major environmental and
health concern, highlighting the urgent need for efficient remediation strategies. Adsorption remains one of the most effective techniques for dye removal due to its simplicity, low cost, and high efficiency. This review discusses the surface chemistry and adsorption behavior of MB on functionalized carbon-based materials, emphasizing how physicochemical characteristics, surface modifications, and functional groups influence adsorption capacity and selectivity. Recent progress in developing engineered carbonaceous adsorbents—such as activated carbon (AC), graphene derivatives, carbon nanotubes, and hybrid carbon composites—has significantly improved the removal performance of MB through enhanced structural and chemical interactions. The ACHC-KOM-1 carbon composite, for instance, exhibits remarkable photocatalytic-assisted adsorption, achieving complete MB degradation under optimized conditions. Surface functional groups and pore architecture are decisive factors governing adsorption efficiency. Oxygen-containing moieties, including carboxyl (–COOH) and hydroxyl (–OH), create active sites that facilitate electrostatic attraction and hydrogen bonding with cationic MB molecules. Nitrogen functionalities (–N), introduced via heteroatom doping, enhance electron-donating properties and π–π interactions between MB aromatic rings and the conjugated carbon framework, thereby strengthening molecular affinity. Pore dimensions further regulate accessibility and diffusion, with micropores (<2 nm) providing strong confinement and high adsorption energy, while mesopores (2–50 nm) promote rapid diffusion and prevent pore blockage. The synergistic combination of abundant surface functionalities and hierarchical porosity governs the overall adsorption capacity, kinetics, stability, and regeneration potential of carbon-based adsorbents for dye removal. The mechanistic framework presented here distinguishes biomass-derived and non-biomass carbon adsorbents, enabling rational design of high-performance materials. These findings offer practical optimization guidelines for industrial-scale methylene blue removal while supporting sustainable, circular-economy-aligned water purification technologies.
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Ulfa, M., Hanif, R. F., & Sholeha, N. A. (2025). Surface Chemistry and Adsorption Behavior of Methylene Blue on Functionalized Carbon Materials: A Comprehensive Study. Communications in Science and Technology, 10(2), 276–291. https://doi.org/10.21924/cst.10.2.2025.1711
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28. W. Donphai, N. Musikanon, Z. Du, P. Sangteantong, K. Chainarong, and M. Chareonpanich, Preparation of C-Zn functionalized MCM-41 from bagasse heavy ash for adsorption of volatile organic compounds: Mater. Lett.. 307 (2022) 131065.
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30. T. W. Chew et al., A Review of Bio-Based Activated Carbon Properties Produced from Different Activating Chemicals during Chemicals Activation Process on Biomass and Its Potential for Malaysia: Materials (Basel). 16 (2023).
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32. C. C. de Souza et al., Activated carbon of Coriandrum sativum for adsorption of methylene blue: Equilibrium and kinetic modeling: Clean. Mater. 3 (2022).
33. C. C. de Souza et al., Activated carbon obtained from cardboard tube waste of immersion thermocouple and adsorption of methylene blue: Biomass Convers. Biorefinery. (2021).
34. Y. Ren, F. Chen, K. Pan, Y. Zhao, L. Ma, and S. Wei, Studies on kinetics, isotherms, thermodynamics and adsorption mechanism of methylene blue by N and S co-doped porous carbon spheres: Nanomaterials. 11 (2021).
35. T. H. Tran et al., Comparative study on methylene blue adsorption behavior of coffee husk-derived activated carbon materials prepared using hydrothermal and soaking methods: J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 9 (2021) 105362.
36. M. Firdaus Mohamad Yusop, A. Aziz, and M. Azmier Ahmad, Conversion of teak wood waste into microwave-irradiated activated carbon for cationic methylene blue dye removal: Optimization and batch studies: Arab. J. Chem. 15 (2022) 104081.
37. A. El Nemr, A. G. M. Shoaib, A. El Sikaily, A. E. D. A. Mohamed, and A. F. Hassan, Evaluation of Cationic Methylene Blue Dye Removal by High Surface Area Mesoporous Activated Carbon Derived from Ulva lactuca: Environ. Process. 8 (2021) 311–332.
38. C. Liang, Q. Shi, J. Feng, J. Yao, H. Huang, and X. Xie, Adsorption Behaviors of Cationic Methylene Blue and Anionic Reactive Blue 19 Dyes onto Nano-Carbon Adsorbent Carbonized from Small Precursors: Nanomaterials. 12 (2022).
39. A. Que, T. Zhu, and Y. Zheng, Highly efficient removal of methylene blue via hollow graphene-based magnesium silicate: J. Mater. Sci. 56 (2021) 16351–16361.
40. A. Castro-Muñiz, A. Martínez-Alonso, and J. M. D. Tascón, Effect of PPTA pre-impregnation with phosphoric acid on the porous texture of carbons prepared by CO2 activation of PPTA chars: Microporous Mesoporous Mater. 119 (2009) 284–289.
41. Q. Q. Zhuang et al., Heteroatom nitrogen and oxygen co-doped three-dimensional honeycomb porous carbons for methylene blue efficient removal: Appl. Surf. Sci. 546 (2021) 149139.
42. S. Gholizadeh Khasevani, S. Shahsavari, and M. R. Gholami, Green synthesis of ternary carbon dots (CDs)/MIL-88B (Fe)/Bi2S3 nanocomposite via MOF templating as a reusable heterogeneous nanocatalyst and nano-photocatalyst: Mater. Res. Bull. 138 (2021) 111204.
43. X. Wang et al., Multilayer adsorption of organic dyes on coal tar-based porous carbon with ultra-high specific surface area: Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 18 (2021) 3871–3882.
44. H. Liu, X. Tian, X. Xiang, and S. Chen, Preparation of carboxymethyl cellulose/graphene composite aerogel beads and their adsorption for methylene blue: Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 202 (2022) 632–643.
45. Y. M. Lian et al., From upcycled waste polyethylene plastic to graphene/mesoporous carbon for high-voltage supercapacitors: J. Colloid Interface Sci. 557 (2019) 55–64.
46. M. Mahiuddin and B. Ochiai, Lemon Juice Assisted Green Synthesis of Reduced Graphene Oxide and Its Application for Adsorption of Methylene Blue: Technologies. 9 (2021) 96.
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