Insight into Aluminum Leaching with Microwave from Peat Clay: A Comparative Kinetic Study of SC and BIC Models
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Keywords:
microwave-assisted leaching, aluminum, shrinking core, peat clay, broken and intact cells, kinetic model
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Abstract
The depletion of bauxite reserves has prompted the research of various types of soil as alternative sources of aluminum, such as the peat clay used in this study. The complexity of the minerals requires a more efficient leaching methods, while microwave-based leaching offers a potential approach through rapid and uniform heating. This study examines the effect of microwave power, HCl concentration, operating temperature, and particle size on the leaching efficiency of aluminum from peat clay soil. The leaching process was modeled using two approaches, namely the shrinking core (SC) model and the broken-intact cell (BIC) model under pseudo-steady state conditions. The results showed that increasing HCl concentration, microwave power, and temperature accelerated leaching, while increasing particle size decreased leaching efficiency. Optimum conditions were achieved at 4 M HCl concentration, 100 W power, 40 °C temperature, and 0.0074 cm particle size. The shrinking core (SC) model showed better fit under most conditions, while the intact-broken cell (BIC) model was more accurate at lower temperatures and particle sizes. The simulation results showed that the most suitable parameter values in the SC model were De = 0.0049 cm2/s, k = 10.5 cm/s, and kc = 2.49 cm/s, while in the BIC model De = 0.04808 cm2/s and K = 0.02689 g/cm3 were obtained. These results confirm the superiority of the SC model in representing microwave-based leaching mechanisms in general, while the BIC model provides additional insights under diffusion-limited conditions. Process Performance Index (PPI) analysis showed that optimum conditions were achieved at 4 M HCl and 40 °C, but lower acid concentrations also yielded competitive PPI. This confirms that leaching effectiveness is determined by a combination of alumina recovery and reagent consumption efficiency. These findings contribute to the development of leaching kinetics models and the optimization of more efficient and energy-saving aluminum extraction processes.
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Mirwan, A., Hairullah, Jelita, R., Jefriadi, Putra, M. D., Ilmanto, B. H., … Darmawan, M. A. (2025). Insight into Aluminum Leaching with Microwave from Peat Clay: A Comparative Kinetic Study of SC and BIC Models. Communications in Science and Technology, 10(2), 447–459. https://doi.org/10.21924/cst.10.2.2025.1850
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References
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49. R. Chi, J. Tian, G. Zhu, Y. Wu, S. Li, C. Wang, Z.A. Zhou, Kinetics of Rare Earth Leaching from a Mangnese‐Removed Weathered Rare‐Earth Mud in Hydrochloric Acid Solutions, Separation Science and Technology 41 (2006) 1099–1113.
50. X. Lv, Q. Wu, X. Huang, L. ling Wu, L. Hu, P. Fei, T. ming Liu, Q. Yu, Effect of Microwave Pretreatment on the Leaching and Enrichment Effect of Copper in Waste Printed Circuit Boards, ACS Omega 8 (2023) 2575–2585.
51. Y. Mubula, M. Yu, D. Yang, H. Niu, H. Gu, T. Qiu, G. Mei, Microwave-assisted atmospheric alkaline leaching process and leaching kinetics of rare earth melt electrolysis slag, Heliyon 10 (2024) e32278.
52. M. Al-Harahsheh, S.W. Kingman, Microwave-assisted leaching—a review, Hydrometallurgy 73 (2004) 189–203.
53. Y. Li, S. Zhu, L. Wang, Purification of natural graphite by microwave assisted acid leaching, Carbon 55 (2013) 377–378.
54. I.A. Nnanwube, O.D. Onukwuli, Characterization and kinetics of alumina leaching from calcined Akpugo kaolinite for potential aluminum recovery, South African Journal of Chemical Engineering 43 (2023) 24–37.
55. M.A. Tantawy, A.A. Alomari, Extraction of Alumina from Nawan Kaolin by Acid Leaching, Oriental Journal of Chemistry 35 (2019) 1013–1021.
56. J.A. Cecilia, L. Pardo, M. Pozo, E. Bellido, F. Franco, Microwave-Assisted Acid Activation of Clays Composed of 2:1 Clay Minerals: A Comparative Study, Minerals 8 (2018) 376.
57. Z.-Y. Zhang, X.-C. Qiao, J.-G. Yu, Aluminum release from microwave-assisted reaction of coal fly ash with calcium carbonate, Fuel Processing Technology 134 (2015) 303–309.
58. J.-S. Kim, N.-C. Choi, H.Y. Jo, Selective Leaching Trace Elements from Bauxite Residue (Red Mud) without and with Adding Solid NH4Cl Using Microwave Heating, Metals 11 (2021) 1281.
2. D. Brough, H. Jouhara, The aluminium industry: A review on state-of-the-art technologies, environmental impacts and possibilities for waste heat recovery, International Journal of Thermofluids 1–2 (2020) 100007.
3. A. Shilla, G. Mwandila, Review of methods for alumina recovery from mudstone and coal fly ash, Heliyon 10 (2024) e34812.
4. A. Mirwan, S. Susianto, A. Altway, R. Handogo, Kinetic model for identifying the rate controlling step of the aluminum leaching from peat clay, Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering) 80 (2018).
5. J. Xu, P.J. Morris, J. Liu, J. Holden, PEATMAP: Refining estimates of global peatland distribution based on a meta-analysis, CATENA 160 (2018) 134–140.
6. G.C. Dargie, S.L. Lewis, I.T. Lawson, E.T.A. Mitchard, S.E. Page, Y.E. Bocko, S.A. Ifo, Age, extent and carbon storage of the central Congo Basin peatland complex, Nature 542 (2017) 86–90.
7. S.E. Page, J.O. Rieley, C.J. Banks, Global and regional importance of the tropical peatland carbon pool, Global Change Biology 17 (2011) 798–818.
8. E.P. Meshcheryakov, S.I. Reshetnikov, M.P. Sandu, A.S. Knyazev, I.A. Kurzina, Efficient Adsorbent-Desiccant Based on Aluminium Oxide, Applied Sciences 11 (2021) 2457.
9. F.M. Kaußen, B. Friedrich, Methods for Alkaline Recovery of Aluminum from Bauxite Residue, J. Sustain. Metall. 2 (2016) 353–364.
10. Z. Yuan, H. Liu, W. Fen Yong, Q. She, J. Esteban, Status and advances of deep eutectic solvents for metal separation and recovery, Green Chemistry 24 (2022) 1895–1929.
11. T. Punt, G. Akdogan, S. Bradshaw, P. van Wyk, Development of a novel solvent extraction process using citric acid for lithium-ion battery recycling, Minerals Engineering 173 (2021) 107204.
12. Y. Mubula, M. Yu, D. Yang, H. Niu, H. Gu, T. Qiu, G. Mei, Microwave-assisted atmospheric alkaline leaching process and leaching kinetics of rare earth melt electrolysis slag, Heliyon 10 (2024) e32278.
13. S. Chae, K. Yoo, C.B. Tabelin, R.D. Alorro, Hydrochloric Acid Leaching Behaviors of Copper and Antimony in Speiss Obtained from Top Submerged Lance Furnace, Metals 10 (2020) 1393.
14. A. Mirwan, S. Susianto, A. Altway, R. Handogo, Temperature-dependent kinetics of aluminum leaching from peat clay, Malaysian Journal of Fundamental and Applied Sciences 16 (2020) 248–251.
15. J. Wang, Y. Zhang, J. Huang, T. Liu, Kinetic and Mechanism Study of Vanadium Acid Leaching from Black Shale Using Microwave Heating Method, JOM 70 (2018) 1031–1036.
16. Z. Ma, Y. Liu, J. Zhou, M. Liu, Z. Liu, Recovery of vanadium and molybdenum from spent petrochemical catalyst by microwave-assisted leaching, Int J Miner Metall Mater 26 (2019) 33–40.
17. Y. Chen, J. Zhou, L. Zhang, J. Peng, S. Li, S. Yin, K. Yang, Y. Lin, Microwave-assisted and regular leaching of germanium from the germanium-rich lignite ash, Green Processing and Synthesis 7 (2018)
18. V. Lovrić, P. Putnik, D.B. Kovačević, M. Jukić, V. Dragović-Uzelac, Effect of Microwave-Assisted Extraction on the Phenolic Compounds and Antioxidant Capacity of Blackthorn Flowers, Food Technol Biotechnol 55 (2017) 243–250.
19. A. Kumar, M. Gayoor Khan, The Scenario of Pharmaceuticals and Development of Microwave Assisted Extraction Techniques, (2019).
20. R.V. Kapoore, T.O. Butler, J. Pandhal, S. Vaidyanathan, Microwave-Assisted Extraction for Microalgae: From Biofuels to Biorefinery, Biology 7 (2018) 18.
21. D.R. Wicakso, A. Mirwan, E. Agustin, N.F. Nopembriani, I. Firdaus, M. Fadillah, Potential of silica from water treatment sludge modified with chitosan for Pb(II) and color adsorption in sasirangan waste solution, Communications in Science and Technology 7 (2022) 188–193.
22. L. Guo, J. Lan, Y. Du, T.C. Zhang, D. Du, Microwave-enhanced selective leaching of arsenic from copper smelting flue dusts, Journal of Hazardous Materials 386 (2020) 121964.
23. O.R. Alara, N.H. Abdurahman, Microwave-assisted extraction of phenolics from Hibiscus sabdariffa calyces: Kinetic modelling and process intensification, Industrial Crops and Products 137 (2019) 528–535.
24. H. Sovová, Broken-and-intact cell model for supercritical fluid extraction: Its origin and limits, The Journal of Supercritical Fluids 129 (2017) 3–8.
25. M. Bonfigli, E. Godoy, M.A. Reinheimer, N.J. Scenna, Comparison between conventional and ultrasound-assisted techniques for extraction of anthocyanins from grape pomace. Experimental results and mathematical modeling, Journal of Food Engineering 207 (2017) 56–72.
26. A. Bucić-Kojić, H. Sovová, M. Planinić, S. Tomas, Temperature-dependent kinetics of grape seed phenolic compounds extraction: Experiment and model, Food Chemistry 136 (2013) 1136–1140.
27. N.B. Singh, Clays and Clay Minerals in the Construction Industry, Minerals 12 (2022) 301.
28. A. Mirwan, M.D. Putra, J.-C. Liu, Susianto, A. Altway, R. Handogo, Aluminum leaching from water treatment sludge using hydrochloric acid and kinetic study, Environ Sci Pollut Res 27 (2020) 25553–25562.
29. H. Hong, S. Chen, Q. Fang, T.J. Algeo, L. Zhao, Adsorption of organic matter on clay minerals in the Dajiuhu peat soil chronosequence, South China, Applied Clay Science 178 (2019) 105125.
30. J. Cao, S. Huang, W. Liu, C. Kong, Y. Gao, F. Liu, Study on Simulation Test of Peat Soil Environment in Dianchi Lake, Advances in Civil Engineering (n.d.).
31. J.A. Rahman, A.M.A. Napia, M.A.A. Nazri, R.M.S.R. Mohamed, A.S. Al-Geethi, A Study on Factors Affecting Strength of Solidified Peat through XRD and FESEM Analysis, IOP Conf. Ser.: Earth Environ. Sci. 140 (2018) 012059.
32. E.D. Ningsih, R. Putra, C.D. La Maisonneuve, M. Phua, S. Eisele, F. Forni, J. Oalmann, H. Rifai, Identification of magnetic mineral forming elements in peatland Alahan Panjang West Sumatra Indonesia, section DD REP B 693 using X-Ray Fluorescence, J. Phys.: Conf. Ser. 1481 (2020) 012018.
33. M. Al-Harahsheh, S.W. Kingman, Microwave-assisted leaching—a review, Hydrometallurgy 73 (2004) 189–203.
34. G. Gluth, C. Grengg, N. Ukrainczyk, F. Mittermayr, M. Dietzel, Acid resistance of alkali-activated materials: recent advances and research needs, RILEM Technical Letters 7 (2022) 58–67.
35. M. Saldaña, E. Gálvez, P. Robles, J. Castillo, N. Toro, Copper Mineral Leaching Mathematical Models—A Review, Materials (Basel) 15 (2022) 1757.
36. J. Zheng, Z. Zheng, L. Li, X. Li, W. Liu, Z. Lin, Acid-leaching mechanism of electroplating sludge: based on a comprehensive analysis of heavy-metal occurrence and the dynamic evolution of coexisting mineral phases, Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 30 (2023) 113600–113608.
37. B. Hu, C. Zhang, X. Zhang, The Effects of Hydrochloric Acid Pretreatment on Different Types of Clay Minerals, Minerals 12 (2022) 1167.
38. V.I. Pak, S.S. Kirov, A.Y. Nalivaiko, D.Y. Ozherelkov, A.A. Gromov, Obtaining Alumina from Kaolin Clay via Aluminum Chloride, Materials 12 (2019) 3938.
39. J. Chen, X. Li, L. Gao, S. Guo, F. He, Microwave Treatment of Minerals and Ores: Heating Behaviors, Applications, and Future Directions, Minerals 14 (2024) 219.
40. V.J. Inglezakis, M. Balsamo, F. Montagnaro, Liquid–Solid Mass Transfer in Adsorption Systems—An Overlooked Resistance?, Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research (2020).
41. R. Shiba, Md.A. Uddin, Y. Kato, S. Kitamura, Solid/liquid Mass Transfer Correlated to Mixing Pattern in a Mechanically-stirred Vessel, ISIJ International 54 (2014) 2754–2760.
42. S. Cheng, C. Zhong, T.A.G. Langrish, Y. Sun, Z. Zhou, Z. Lei, The relative importance of internal and external physical resistances to mass transfer for caffeine release from apple pectin tablets, Curr Res Food Sci 5 (2022) 634–641.
43. F.S. Mohammad, E.A.H. Al Zubaidy, G. Bassioni, Effect of Aluminum Leaching Process of Cooking Wares on Food, International Journal of Electrochemical Science 6 (2011) 222–230.
44. D. Yang, M. Yu, Y. Zhao, M. Cheng, G. Mei, Leaching Kinetics of Y and Eu from Waste Phosphors under Microwave Irradiation, Processes 11 (2023) 1939.
45. X. Bu, Z. Tong, M. Bilal, X. Ren, M. Ni, C. Ni, G. Xie, Effect of ultrasound power on HCl leaching kinetics of impurity removal of aphanitic graphite, Ultrason Sonochem 95 (2023) 106415.
46. A. Zhu, X. Bian, W. Han, Y. Wen, K. Ye, G. Wang, J. Yan, D. Cao, K. Zhu, S. Wang, Microwave-ultra-fast recovery of valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries by deep eutectic solvents, Waste Management 156 (2023) 139–147.
47. J. Chen, X. Li, L. Gao, S. Guo, F. He, Microwave Treatment of Minerals and Ores: Heating Behaviors, Applications, and Future Directions, Minerals 14 (2024) 219.
48. S. Chae, K. Yoo, C.B. Tabelin, R.D. Alorro, Hydrochloric Acid Leaching Behaviors of Copper and Antimony in Speiss Obtained from Top Submerged Lance Furnace, Metals 10 (2020) 1393.
49. R. Chi, J. Tian, G. Zhu, Y. Wu, S. Li, C. Wang, Z.A. Zhou, Kinetics of Rare Earth Leaching from a Mangnese‐Removed Weathered Rare‐Earth Mud in Hydrochloric Acid Solutions, Separation Science and Technology 41 (2006) 1099–1113.
50. X. Lv, Q. Wu, X. Huang, L. ling Wu, L. Hu, P. Fei, T. ming Liu, Q. Yu, Effect of Microwave Pretreatment on the Leaching and Enrichment Effect of Copper in Waste Printed Circuit Boards, ACS Omega 8 (2023) 2575–2585.
51. Y. Mubula, M. Yu, D. Yang, H. Niu, H. Gu, T. Qiu, G. Mei, Microwave-assisted atmospheric alkaline leaching process and leaching kinetics of rare earth melt electrolysis slag, Heliyon 10 (2024) e32278.
52. M. Al-Harahsheh, S.W. Kingman, Microwave-assisted leaching—a review, Hydrometallurgy 73 (2004) 189–203.
53. Y. Li, S. Zhu, L. Wang, Purification of natural graphite by microwave assisted acid leaching, Carbon 55 (2013) 377–378.
54. I.A. Nnanwube, O.D. Onukwuli, Characterization and kinetics of alumina leaching from calcined Akpugo kaolinite for potential aluminum recovery, South African Journal of Chemical Engineering 43 (2023) 24–37.
55. M.A. Tantawy, A.A. Alomari, Extraction of Alumina from Nawan Kaolin by Acid Leaching, Oriental Journal of Chemistry 35 (2019) 1013–1021.
56. J.A. Cecilia, L. Pardo, M. Pozo, E. Bellido, F. Franco, Microwave-Assisted Acid Activation of Clays Composed of 2:1 Clay Minerals: A Comparative Study, Minerals 8 (2018) 376.
57. Z.-Y. Zhang, X.-C. Qiao, J.-G. Yu, Aluminum release from microwave-assisted reaction of coal fly ash with calcium carbonate, Fuel Processing Technology 134 (2015) 303–309.
58. J.-S. Kim, N.-C. Choi, H.Y. Jo, Selective Leaching Trace Elements from Bauxite Residue (Red Mud) without and with Adding Solid NH4Cl Using Microwave Heating, Metals 11 (2021) 1281.