Enhanced bioelectricity recovery and melanoidin degradation in CO2- capturing microbial fuel cells via biochar-immobilized whole-cell biocatalysts
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Keywords:
Bioelectricity recovery, Carbon capture, Environmental remediation, Sustainable energy, Whole-cell biocatalyst
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Abstract
Melanoidin-rich wastewater from agro-industrial processes, particularly palm oil mill effluent, poses significant environmental problem owing to its recalcitrant nature and high organic load. The present study developed a carbon-capturing microbial fuel cell (MFC) integrated with biochar-immobilized laccase-producing microbial consortia for an integrated system enabling concurrent melanoidin removal, bioelectricity recovery, and carbon fixation under the tested conditions. Empty fruit bunch (EFB) biochar produced at 600 °C (BC600) was selected as an immobilization support due to its superior adsorption capacity and functional surface properties. The immobilized system demonstrated a maximum melanoidin removal efficiency of 73.15±1.10% and significant COD reduction with degradation exhibiting a close association with enhanced laccase activity. In the MFC, enhanced electrochemical performance was observed, with a maximum open circuit voltage of 619.17±10.49 mV, along with current and power densities of 8.29±0.15 A/m3 and 1.00±0.20 W/m3, respectively. Coupling with microalgae resulted in the simultaneous fixation of carbon (0.13±0.00 g/L/day). A phytotoxicity assessment confirmed no inhibitory effects on rice seed germination. This finding indicates that the substance is environmentally safe. It is imperative to note that the present study proposes a novel integration of biochar-based immobilization with a carbon-capturing MFC for the concurrent removal of pollutants, energy recovery, and CO2 mitigation. This sustainable approach offers a promising solution for the treatment of melanoidin-rich wastewater.
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Thipraksa, J., Yooyen, T., Sola, P., Palasai, W., & Chaijak, P. (2026). Enhanced bioelectricity recovery and melanoidin degradation in CO2- capturing microbial fuel cells via biochar-immobilized whole-cell biocatalysts. Communications in Science and Technology, 11(1), 250–258. https://doi.org/10.21924/cst.11.1.2026.1996
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References
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28. B. Singh, Y. Fang and C. T. Johnston, A Fourier-transform infrared study of biochar aging in soils, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 80 (2016) 613-622.
29. J. L. Santos, M. A. Centeno and J. A. Odriozola, Biochar production from cellulose under reductant atmosphere: influence of the total pyrolysis time, RSC Adv. 13 (2023) 21071-21079.
30. V. Kvorkova, T. Pocsova, A. Szarka, S. Hrouzkova and M. Soldan, Role of pyrolysis temperature in coconut fiber biomass conversion, MM Sci. J. 12 (2025) 2025114.
31. R. Gasco, R. Sendra, I. Olmeda, F. Paredes-Martinez, S. Ferrer, I. Pardo and P. Casino, Laccase from lactic acid bacteria show cuprous oxidase activity and capture Cu(II) and Ag(I) ions, Protein Sci. 35 (2026) e70385.
32. H. Pei, Y. Wang, W. He, L. Deng, Q. Lan, Y. Zhang, L. Yang, K. Hu, J. Li and Y. Yang, Research of multicopper oxidase and its degradation of histamine in Lactiplantibacillus plantarum LPZN19. Microorganism, 11 (2023) 2724.
33. E. P. Tsiakiri, E. Sompatzi, F. Voukia, S. Sotiropoulos, and A. A. Pantazaki, Biocatalytic and bioelectrolytic decolorization of simulated melanoidin wastewaters by Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells suspended and conjugated on silica and alumina, J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 8 (2020)104078.
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36. R. Chandra, V. Kumar and S. Tripathi, Evaluation of molasses-melanoidin decoloursation by potential bacterial consortium discharged in distillery effluent, 3 Biotech. 8 (2018) 187.
37. V. Kumar and R. Chandra, Characterisation of manganese peroxidase and laccase producing bacteria capable for degradation od sucrose glutamic acid – Maillard reaction products at different nutritional and environmental conditions, World Microb. Biotech. 34 (2018) 32.
38. R. Chandra, R. N. Bharagava and V. Rai, Melanoidins as major colourant in sugarcane molasses based distillery effluent and its degradation, Bioresour. Technol. 99 (2008) 4648-4660.
39. S. Ahmed, I. N. Unar, H. A. Khan, G. Maitlo, R. B. Mahar, A. S. Jatoi, A. Q. Memon, and A. K. Shah, Experimental study and dynamic simulation of melanoidin adsorption from distillery effluent, Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 27 (2020) 9619-9636.
40. N. Akhlaghi, G. Najafpour-Darzi and A. Vaziri, Removal of melanoidin from baker yeast plant wastewater: A comparative study on chemical and biological processes, J. Water Process Eng. 61 (2024) 105301.
41. N. Selim, H. H. Maghrawy, R. Fathy, M. Gamal, H. A. E. Kareem, K. Bowman, M. Brehney, G. Kyazze, T. Keshavarz and O. Gomaa, Modification of bacterial cell membrane to accelerate decolorization of textile wastewater effluent using microbial fuel cells: role of gamma radiation, J. Radia. Res. Appl. Sci. 13 (2020) 373-382.
42. J. Murugaiyan, A. Narayanan and S. N. Mohamed, Influence of operating parameters on electricity production in up-flow microbial fuel cell during distillery wastewater treatment, Water Conserv. Sci. Eng. 10 (2025) 12.
43. J. M. H. Bieser, M. Al-Zayat, J. Murtada and S. C. Thomas, Biochar mitigation of allelopathic effects in three invasive plants: evidence from seed germination trains, Canadian J. Soil Sci. 102 (2022) 213-224.
44. D. Mohan, A. Sarswat, Y. S. Ok and C. U. Pittman, Organic and inorganic contaminants removal from water with biochar, a renewable, low cost and sustainable adsorbent – A critical review, Bioresour. Technol. 160 (2014) 191-202.
2. F. J. Morales, V. Somoza and V. Fogliano, Physiological relevance of dietary melanoidins, Amino Acid. 42 (2012) 1097-1109.
3. S. Yang, W. Fan, Y. Nie and Y. Xu, The formation and structural characteristics of melanoidins from fermenting and distilled grains of Chinese liquor (baijiu), Food Chem. 410 (2023) 135372.
4. D. Zhang, Y. Feng, H. Huang, W. Khunjar and Z. W. Wang, Recalcitrant dissolved organic nitrogen formation in thermal hydrolysis pretreatment of municipal sludge, Environ Int. 138 (2020) 05629.
5. Y. Li, Q. Zhang, S. Xiao, Q. Yang, L. Wang and J. Hao, Review of melanoidins as by-product from thermal hydrolysis of sludge: Properties, hazards, and removal, Process. 12 (2024) 135.
6. P. Chowdhary, A. Raj and R. N. Bharagava, Environmental pollution and health hazards from distillery wastewater and treatment approaches to combat the environmental threats: A review, Chemosphere. 194 (2018) 229-246.
7. P. Chowdhary, S. R. Sammi, R. Pandey, G. Kaithwas, A. Raj, J. Singh and R. N. Bharagava. Bacterial degradation of distillery wastewater pollutants and their metabolites characterization and its toxicity evaluation by using Caenorhabditis elegans as terrestrial test models, Chemosphere. 261 (2020) 127689.
8. M. Akhtar, M. Hussain, F. Naeem, P. Akhter, F. Jamil, Q. A. Qamar, A. A. Bazmi, N. Tariq, A. Asrar and Y. K. Park, Green and sustainable synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles for synergetic removal of melanoidin from ethanol distillery simulated model wastewater, J. Ind. and Eng. Chem. 132 (2024) 291-303.
9. Z. Zhang, W. Hu, Q. Xie, Y. Shi, Y. Zhao, Y. Deng, J. He, X. Wu, W. Zhang, P. Liu, H. Yang and W. Wang, Efficient decolorization of melanoidin in raw molasses wastewater by thermophilic esterase in actual extreme conditions, Bioresour. Technol. 382 (2023) 129191.
10. L. F. Ramos, A. Giacobbo, A. M. Bernardes and S. U. GeiBen, Melanoidins and polyphenols recovery from soluble coffee production wastewater employing non-ionic polymeric resins, J. Environ. Manage. 402 (2026) 128900.
11. J. Thipraksa, P. Chaijak, P. Michu and M. Lertworapreecha, Biodegradation and bioelectricity generation of melanoidin in palm oil mill effluent (POME) by laccase-producing bacterial consortium integrated with microbial fuel cell, Biocatal. Agric. Biotechnol. 43 (2022) 102444.
12. M. A. B. M. Yusof, Y. J. Chan, C. H. Chong and C. L. Chew, Effects of operational processes and equipment in palm oil mills on characteristics of raw palm oil mill effluent (POME): A comparative study of four mills, Clean Waste Sys. 5 (2023) 100101.
13. S. N. Yodpijit, S. Wangrakdiskul, N. Charoensuk, K. Phromphat and C. Boonmee, Sustainable quality transformation in agro-industrial manufacturing: A six sigma-kaizen model for Thailand’s crude palm oil sector, Jurnal Riset Ilmu Teknik. 3 (2025) 125-140.
14. S. Rizvi, A. Singh, A. Kushwaha and S. K. Gupta, Emerging Trends to Approaching Zero Waste. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2022.
15. P. Mahla and N. Bhatt, Bioremediation Technology, Hazardous Waste Management. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2020.
16. S. Roddriguez-Couto. Immobilized-laccase bioreactors for wastewater treatment, Biotechnol. J. 19 (2023) 2300354.
17. D. Ren, Z. Wang, S. Jiang, H. Yu, S. Zhang and X. Zhang, Recent environmental applications of and development prospects for immobilized laccase: A review, Biotechnol. Gen. Eng. Rev. 36 (2020) 81-131.
18. H. Beyenal, I. S. Chang, S. V. Mohan and D. Pant, Microbial fuel cells: Current trends and emerging applications, Bioresour. Technol. 324 (2021) 124687.
19. R. Selvasembian, J. Mal, R. Rani, R. Sinha, R. Agrahari, I. Joshua, A. Santhiagu and N. Pradhan, Recent progress in microbial fuel cells for industrial effluent treatment and energy generation: Fundamentals to scale-up application and challenges, Bioresour. Technol. 346 (2022) 126462.
20. N. N. M. Noor and K. Kim, Boosting bioelectricity performance in sediment microbial fuel cells with raw bamboo biochar as a sustainable energy source, Renew. Ener. 251 (2025) 123457.
21. S. Savitri, F. Reguyal and A. Sarmah, A feasibility study on production, characterization and application of empty fruit bunch oil palm biochar for Mn2+ removal from aqueous solution, Environ Pollut. 318 (2023) 120879.
22. K. Rothjanawan, W. Palasai, R. Yodrach, P. Michu, A. Kongthong and P. Chaijak, Melanoidin degradation and bioelectricity generation from palm oil mill effluent (POME) suing fungal-based microbial fuel cell, Asian J. Agric. Biol. 2025 (2025) 2025248.
23. W. Palasai, K. Rothjanawan, A. Kongthong, R. Yodrach, J. Thipraksa and P. Chaijak, Melanoidin degradation and electric energy production from palm oil waste using immobilized laccase-producing bacteria, Commun. Sci. Technol. 10 (2025) 218-225.
24. Y. A. Lim, M. N. Chong, S. C. Foo and I. M. S. K. Ilankoon, Analysis of direct and indirect quantification methods of CO2 fixation via microalgae cultivation in photobioreactors: A critical review, Renew. Sustain. Ener. Rev. 137 (2021) 110579.
25. P. M. Mendes, J. A. Ribeiro, G. A. Martins, T. Lucia, T. R. Araujo, M. D. Fuentes-Guevara, L. B. Correa and E. K. Correa, Phytotoxicity test in check: Proposition of methodology for comparison of different method adaptations usually used worldwide, J. Environ. Manage. 291 (2021) 112698.
26. L. N. Diego, S. O. Leandro and S. F. Adriana, Melanoidin removal mechanism in an aqueous adsorption system: An equilibrium, kinetic and thermodynamic study, Recent Patent. Food Nutr. Agric. 7 (2015), 35-46.
27. S. Rizvi, L. Goswami and S. K. Gupta, A holistic approach for melanoidin removal via Fe-impregnated activated carbon prepared from Mangifera indica leaves biomass, Bioresour. Technol. Rep. 12 (2020) 100591.
28. B. Singh, Y. Fang and C. T. Johnston, A Fourier-transform infrared study of biochar aging in soils, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 80 (2016) 613-622.
29. J. L. Santos, M. A. Centeno and J. A. Odriozola, Biochar production from cellulose under reductant atmosphere: influence of the total pyrolysis time, RSC Adv. 13 (2023) 21071-21079.
30. V. Kvorkova, T. Pocsova, A. Szarka, S. Hrouzkova and M. Soldan, Role of pyrolysis temperature in coconut fiber biomass conversion, MM Sci. J. 12 (2025) 2025114.
31. R. Gasco, R. Sendra, I. Olmeda, F. Paredes-Martinez, S. Ferrer, I. Pardo and P. Casino, Laccase from lactic acid bacteria show cuprous oxidase activity and capture Cu(II) and Ag(I) ions, Protein Sci. 35 (2026) e70385.
32. H. Pei, Y. Wang, W. He, L. Deng, Q. Lan, Y. Zhang, L. Yang, K. Hu, J. Li and Y. Yang, Research of multicopper oxidase and its degradation of histamine in Lactiplantibacillus plantarum LPZN19. Microorganism, 11 (2023) 2724.
33. E. P. Tsiakiri, E. Sompatzi, F. Voukia, S. Sotiropoulos, and A. A. Pantazaki, Biocatalytic and bioelectrolytic decolorization of simulated melanoidin wastewaters by Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells suspended and conjugated on silica and alumina, J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 8 (2020)104078.
34. R. P. Georgiou, E. P. Tsiakiri, N. K. Lazaridis and A. A. Pantazaki, Decolorization of melanoidins from simulated and industrial molasses effluents by immobilized laccase, J. Environ. Chem Eng. 4 (2016) 1322-1331.
35. W. Toomsan, P. Mungkarndee, S. Boonlue, N. T. Giao and S. Siripattanakul-Ratpukdi, Potential degradation and kinetics of melanoidin by using laccase from white rot fungus, Appl. Environ. Res. 42 (2020) 1-10.
36. R. Chandra, V. Kumar and S. Tripathi, Evaluation of molasses-melanoidin decoloursation by potential bacterial consortium discharged in distillery effluent, 3 Biotech. 8 (2018) 187.
37. V. Kumar and R. Chandra, Characterisation of manganese peroxidase and laccase producing bacteria capable for degradation od sucrose glutamic acid – Maillard reaction products at different nutritional and environmental conditions, World Microb. Biotech. 34 (2018) 32.
38. R. Chandra, R. N. Bharagava and V. Rai, Melanoidins as major colourant in sugarcane molasses based distillery effluent and its degradation, Bioresour. Technol. 99 (2008) 4648-4660.
39. S. Ahmed, I. N. Unar, H. A. Khan, G. Maitlo, R. B. Mahar, A. S. Jatoi, A. Q. Memon, and A. K. Shah, Experimental study and dynamic simulation of melanoidin adsorption from distillery effluent, Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 27 (2020) 9619-9636.
40. N. Akhlaghi, G. Najafpour-Darzi and A. Vaziri, Removal of melanoidin from baker yeast plant wastewater: A comparative study on chemical and biological processes, J. Water Process Eng. 61 (2024) 105301.
41. N. Selim, H. H. Maghrawy, R. Fathy, M. Gamal, H. A. E. Kareem, K. Bowman, M. Brehney, G. Kyazze, T. Keshavarz and O. Gomaa, Modification of bacterial cell membrane to accelerate decolorization of textile wastewater effluent using microbial fuel cells: role of gamma radiation, J. Radia. Res. Appl. Sci. 13 (2020) 373-382.
42. J. Murugaiyan, A. Narayanan and S. N. Mohamed, Influence of operating parameters on electricity production in up-flow microbial fuel cell during distillery wastewater treatment, Water Conserv. Sci. Eng. 10 (2025) 12.
43. J. M. H. Bieser, M. Al-Zayat, J. Murtada and S. C. Thomas, Biochar mitigation of allelopathic effects in three invasive plants: evidence from seed germination trains, Canadian J. Soil Sci. 102 (2022) 213-224.
44. D. Mohan, A. Sarswat, Y. S. Ok and C. U. Pittman, Organic and inorganic contaminants removal from water with biochar, a renewable, low cost and sustainable adsorbent – A critical review, Bioresour. Technol. 160 (2014) 191-202.